Showing posts with label ANTHROPOLOGY. Show all posts
Showing posts with label ANTHROPOLOGY. Show all posts
Wednesday, July 8, 2009
Ushul fiqh is the science which is very important in the Islamic law of adaptive and responsive to contemporary problems, because it is the knowledge that contains the collection of methods, foundations, approaches, and theories used in understanding the teachings of Islam. This makes it occupies a central position in Islamic studies, so often referred to as the queen of Islamic sciences.
Substantially and the theoretical, ushul fiqh have since the fiqh, fiqh as appears impossible without the resources and methods of use. This means that the embryo of (embryo) ushul fiqh have much time before the priest madzhab. However, ushul fiqh as a science of the coherent and systematic, in general, recognized the new show at the priest madzhab, especially al-Syafi'i with his al-tract. Joseph Schacht has shown that "success" of al-Syafi'i in developing the law, not only came from al-Qur'an taken for granted, but it also comes on the Sunna of the Prophet.
Findings Joseph Schacht, who gave high appreciation to the al-Syafi'i as the founder of the theory of law that are useful during the mid-period and modern, have to deliver the Islamisis simply believe that al-Syafi'i is father of the founder of Muslim Jurisprudence and legal theory Islam, which is called fiqh ushul. Treatise al-Kitab al-Syafi'i paper is considered as a model, both for lawyers and experts who write about theology ushul fiqh. Although the theory of law has been developed and modified in the period after, it still recognized as the achievements of al-Syafi'i. Even a diktum says that "al-fiqh Syafi'i ushul is as Aristoteles logic is" still valid to this day.
This is, by Wael B. Hallaq, who became part of the Muslims during this. There is not enough evidence for the existence of al-fiqh ushul Syafi'i standard methodology flow of Sunni law.
In fact, there is no reason to test the 9th century, the chronological, as the era dominated by the influence of al-Syafi'iyyah really excited to keep the integrity of the teachings of al-Syafi'i. Indeed there is some thought that the law is different from the mainstream, such as Zhahiriyah, one by one, but thought it lost from the surface and then become very marginal. Thus, the continuity between theory and al-Syafi'i ushul fiqih classic looks very natural growing, particularly in the case related to the perception of al-Syafi'i, not only as a "master architect" Islamic law, but also as a legal expert has brought legal thought "liberal" in the 8th century on the subject under revelation.
Assumption of continuity ushul fiqih and the al-Syafi'i meniscayakan that this is the need for more in-depth study of the sources of history. In fact, historical evidence on the early and mid-period does not only differ with this assumption, but it looks contrary. At this ranah, Hallaq any posts that prove we do not have a strong reason to believe that there is continuity, that the contribution of al-al-tract Syafi'i and legal theory in the century-9 is very small, and that the image of al-Syafi 'i as the founder of Creative ushul fiqih is later.
Substantially and the theoretical, ushul fiqh have since the fiqh, fiqh as appears impossible without the resources and methods of use. This means that the embryo of (embryo) ushul fiqh have much time before the priest madzhab. However, ushul fiqh as a science of the coherent and systematic, in general, recognized the new show at the priest madzhab, especially al-Syafi'i with his al-tract. Joseph Schacht has shown that "success" of al-Syafi'i in developing the law, not only came from al-Qur'an taken for granted, but it also comes on the Sunna of the Prophet.
Findings Joseph Schacht, who gave high appreciation to the al-Syafi'i as the founder of the theory of law that are useful during the mid-period and modern, have to deliver the Islamisis simply believe that al-Syafi'i is father of the founder of Muslim Jurisprudence and legal theory Islam, which is called fiqh ushul. Treatise al-Kitab al-Syafi'i paper is considered as a model, both for lawyers and experts who write about theology ushul fiqh. Although the theory of law has been developed and modified in the period after, it still recognized as the achievements of al-Syafi'i. Even a diktum says that "al-fiqh Syafi'i ushul is as Aristoteles logic is" still valid to this day.
This is, by Wael B. Hallaq, who became part of the Muslims during this. There is not enough evidence for the existence of al-fiqh ushul Syafi'i standard methodology flow of Sunni law.
In fact, there is no reason to test the 9th century, the chronological, as the era dominated by the influence of al-Syafi'iyyah really excited to keep the integrity of the teachings of al-Syafi'i. Indeed there is some thought that the law is different from the mainstream, such as Zhahiriyah, one by one, but thought it lost from the surface and then become very marginal. Thus, the continuity between theory and al-Syafi'i ushul fiqih classic looks very natural growing, particularly in the case related to the perception of al-Syafi'i, not only as a "master architect" Islamic law, but also as a legal expert has brought legal thought "liberal" in the 8th century on the subject under revelation.
Assumption of continuity ushul fiqih and the al-Syafi'i meniscayakan that this is the need for more in-depth study of the sources of history. In fact, historical evidence on the early and mid-period does not only differ with this assumption, but it looks contrary. At this ranah, Hallaq any posts that prove we do not have a strong reason to believe that there is continuity, that the contribution of al-al-tract Syafi'i and legal theory in the century-9 is very small, and that the image of al-Syafi 'i as the founder of Creative ushul fiqih is later.
Tuesday, July 7, 2009
Although we realize that since the beginning of the study of religion will have difficulties because of things that examine the beliefs (beliefs) that the size of the truth lies in the confidence, to the anthropological tradition of religion, especially to the century-16 and 17, with the rapidly developing. Evans-Pritchard, a pioneer in the tradition of social anthropology in the UK, said that the dilemma of the study about religion is that the reality of religion can not be fully understood except by those who practice religion itself.This he had felt, for example, when writing about the struggle of the Sufi Cyrenica in Libya against the Italian occupation, where he had difficulty to explain the phenomenon pursuivant Sufi devotion to their Sufi teachers. Can not be denied that Evans-Pritchard and can describe the phenomenon in the Sufi Cyrenica with full empathy.
Difficulty learning approach religion with culture, learn the discourse, and understanding human behavior in relation to the teachings of religion, is felt also by those who are. Difficulties that occur because of fear to discuss religious issues that may be sacred, and even taboo to learn. The issue is more with the belief that religion is not the result of human intellectual engineering, but the revelation comes from the holy God. So that believed religious reality as a "social destiny" that do not need to be understood.
But surely must realize that religion can not be dodged without the influence of cultural-human-ulah think will not be able to develop extended to all mankind. The spread of religion is related to the business people to pass it on to other areas. And not too business-business man, if Islam can be seen in the role of friends, and mengkonstruksi translate the teachings of religion into a system framework that can be followed by humans. The birth of science tafsir, hadith sciences, science, nature and science Jurisprudence Jurisprudence is the result of human intellectual construction to translate the teachings of religion in accordance with the needs of human beings in a social environment and culture. Socio-cultural diversity in the world that have this result on the complexity of religion.
As a universal phenomenon is complex, the existence of religion in society has encouraged the birth of many studies on religion. Studies on religion because religion is not growing that can not be separated from social reality, but in fact the reality of the religious role in social change and social transformation. Socrates is thousands of years ago that religious phenomena are phenomena of humanity. This statement is often used apologis of religion to strengthen their confidence akan how mendasarnya position in the religious values of humanity.
However ditandaskan also need to have that attitude back the meaning of religion and its relevance to the social life is also a universal phenomenon that is everywhere. Religious studies both in the primitive society to a modern society that shows that the existence of religion always has two sides that concurrently, the tendency transendensi and sekularisasi.
In general religious studies in anthropology can be categorized into four theoretical framework; intellectualist, structuralist, functionalist and symbolist. Tradition in the anthropological study of religion begins with the perspective of religious intellectualism that is trying to see the definition of religion in every society and then see the development of the (religious development) in one community. Included in the tradition is for example E.B. Taylor that attempts to define religion as belief in the strength of the supranatural. Although the definition of religion is very minimalist, this definition shows a tendency to generalize from the reality of religious animism, to the monotheist religions.
So this trend of traditional intellectualism and examine the development of religion from the perspective of the anismisme towards monotheism. According to the development of religion Mircea Eliade menujukkan symptoms such as the pendulum day, which is always moving from one edge to the other end. Similarly religion evolved from a tendency towards monotheism anismisme and will return to animism. However, based on the teachings contained in the holy book, Max Müller holds that religion begins from monotheisme into religion a lot of that.
Third theory, strukturalis, fungsionalis and symbolic, the birth of emile Durkheim. Book Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, has inspire many people see in religion. Durkheim Through the book you want to see religion from the most simple forms of diimani by Aboriginal tribes in Asutralia to the religion of well-structured and well-organised, as reflected in the monotheist religions. Durkheim found that the most important aspect in the understanding of religion is distingsi between the Sacred and the profan. However, he did not agree with the opinion stating that the Sacred is always the spiritual.
In simple religious Australian Aboriginal tribes found that the worship of the Sacred was given to matters such as kangaroos profan.
In addition to the criticisms of the approach is intelektualis, Durkheim also revealed that the community as a totality dikonseptualisasikan tied by social relationships. In this sense the society (community) for Durkheim is "the structure of social ties are strengthened with the moral consensus." This view of the anthropologist to inspire the structural approach in understanding religion in society. Claude Lévi-Strauss is a disciple of Durkheim, which continues to develop the approach, structuralism, primarily to search for answers the relationship between individual and society. For Levi-Strauss in the form of religious myths, magic is a model framework for action for the individual in society. So the views of social Durkheim developed by Levi-Strauss to be not only social relationships but also in ideology and social structure as a mind.
Meanwhile Durkheim views about the function in the community is very influential in the tradition of social anthropology in the UK. The view that Durkheim assumes that people are always in a state of equilibrium and bound each other with each other, the anthropologist has been encouraging to see the function of religion in society that is balanced. Psychological function of religion, as a brace from the moral community ties and social functions of religious solidarity brace as the foundation of human development theory fungsionalisme. Branislaw Malinowski said that the function of religion in society is to give the answers to the problems that can not be solved with common sense, rationality and the ability to use technology.
In every time the issue of complete-problem, the ability of human rationality and the creation of technology. When a tribe of traditional Trobiand community in the coastal areas of Papua New Guinea found that the field has been damaged by wild pigs, with the ability of rationality and control of the technology community tribe Trobiand make a fence so that pigs can no longer enter the field. However, when trying the fish in the ocean hunting, where the ocean waves and weather that they can not control the ability of rationality and technology, they use religion as pemecahnya. But before they sailed, they perform rituals with offerings as a means of communication with the spiritual strength to solve the problem of unpredictable.
Theory of symbolism which is the dominant theory in the decade of 70-also take an actual root of Durkheim, although not explicitly build a theory of Durkheim symbolism. Durkheim views about the meaning and function of rituals in the community as an activity to restore the unity of the anthropologist inspire people to apply the view ritual as a symbol. One of the theories is to use Victor Turner when he conducted the study ritual (religious ceremony) in the community Ndembu in Africa. Turner view that ritual is a symbol that is used by people Ndembu to convey the concept of togetherness. Ndembu rituals for the community is a place mentransendensikan conflict to the daily values of spiritual religion. Therefore, the rituals, the main cult rituals (rituals related to the problems ketidakberuntungan-misfortune) contains four important social function. First, the ritual as a medium to reduce the hostility (reduce hostility) among citizens because of the suspicion, the suspicion of evil intent to someone else. Second, the ritual used to close the chasm of differences caused friction in the community. Third, the ritual as a means to stabilize the intimate relationship again. Fourth, the ritual as a medium for re-affirming values of community. So Turner saw rituals not only as a duty (prescribed) only, but as a symbol of what is actually happening in the community.
In addition to the intellectual tradition and the tradition of three-strukturalis, fungsionalis and symbolic-which stems from the tradition of Durkheim, there is a tradition in the study of religion that developed from the perspective Weber. Unlike traditions intelektualis and Durkheimian tradition, Weber is interested to see the relationship between religious doctrine and secular human activity, such as economic and political. Therefore, Weber was not interested to discuss the definition or the existence of religious argumentation rationality. In studies on the relationship between the Protestant ethic, especially Calvinisme sect, and the development of modern capitalism, Weber showed interest to discuss the relationship between the religious ethic and capitalism. Ethical teachings about hard work which always appear in the writings Calvinisme clergy and the sect is also a theme that repeated re-reading in this religious sect, is in accordance with the modern labor.
Tradition that developed by Weber this was followed by many social scientists are primarily in the United States. Study conducted by Robert N. Tokugawa Religion Bellah about trying to see the relationship with the religious ethics Meiji restoration, and also a study done by Geertz on the market in Java and Bali priyayi the approach used by Weber. Studies so that this question is no longer true, and a religious one, but see sejauhmana-religious aspects of the ideals of social-influence human behavior.
Due to the apparent approach of the study at the religious place in the top of the empirical reality that can be viewed and examined. In the view of social science, questions the validity of a religion does not lies in the arguments-arguments teologisnya, but lies in how religion can play a role in human social life. Here, religious positioned in empirical social framework, as other social realities, because in relation to human life, of things that empirislah, even though the supernatural also be important, which is the study of social attention.
If religion is for the benefit of mankind, then the issues mankind is also a religious issue. In Islam man is described as caliph (deputy) of God on earth. Antropologis the expression of this means that the reality is the reality of human divinity. Without understanding the reality of human-including the reality is a social-cultural understanding of the divine will not be perfect, because half of the divine reality is not understood. Here, look how the study of man, which is the center of attention of anthropologists, become very important.
Importance of studying the human reality of this message can also be seen from Al-Qur'an when discussing religious concepts. Al-Qur'an often uses "person" to explain the concept of piety.
For example, to explain the concept of piety, Al-Qur'an refer to the concept of "muttaqien", to explain the concept of patient, Al-Qur'an uses the word "patient man" and so on. If we refer to the Koran the message that indeed, the concepts of religious termanifestasikan in human behavior. Therefore, understanding the concept of religion lies in understanding the reality of humanity.
Thus, human reality is empirical reality of the divine. And the issues faced by human reflection of the problems is divine. So learn the reality of human beings, with every aspect, is to learn God's religion-read-in empirical reality. The fact that human-reality that is reflected in the various cultural-variety, then the cross-culture study is needed to see the reality of a universal religion. Marshal Hodgson describes the various manifestations macamnya-religious culture in particular-little-tradition is mosaic of realities universal religion-great tradition.
Education ANTHROPOLOGY IN ISLAM study
Religious phenomenon is a universal human phenomenon. During this time there were no reports of research and study that states that there is a community that does not have any concept of religion.Although the event has changed the social change orientation, and religious meaning, it does not negate the existence of religious work in the community. So that the study of religion will always continue to grow and become an important study. Due to the nature of universality in the religious community, the study of the community will not be complete without seeing religion as one of the faktornya. Often the study of political, economic and social change in a society have forgotten the existence of religion as one of the factors determinan. No surprise if the studies can not reflect social reality that more complete.
The statement that religion is a phenomenon in the eternal on the other hand also provides a description that the existence of religion can not be separated from the influence of reality around him. Often the practices of a religious community in the developed doctrine of religious teachings, and then adjusted to the cultural environment. The meeting between the doctrine of religious and cultural reality is very clearly seen in the practice of religious rituals. In Islam, such as the Idul Fitri in Indonesia, which celebrated the tradition sungkeman-bersilaturahmi to a more old-is a proof of the value keterpautan between religion and culture. Pertautan between the religious and cultural reality is possible because religion does not occur in a vacuum cleaner reality-always original. Keterpautan religion with the cultural realities mean that the reality of their own religion, which is always in touch with the people, be surrounded by that culture.
The fact that also provides the sense that the development of religion in a public discourse, both in practical and social-show elements of human construction. Although this statement does not necessarily mean that the religion purely human creation, but that relationship can not be dodged between the God-like construction that is reflected in the holy scriptures, and construction of human-translation and interpretation of sacred values, religious practices represented in the religious rituals. At the time people make interpretations of the teachings of religion, the environment is influenced by their cultural-primordial-that was inherent in himself. This may explain why interpretations of the teachings of religion different from one community to another community.
Comparative study of Islam in Indonesia and Morocco made by Clifford Geertz, for example to prove the existence of the influence of culture in understanding Islam. Islam in Indonesia into a syncretic religion that, while Islam in Morocco has an aggressive nature and passionate. Differences in the manifestation of religion shows how reality is strongly influenced by religious-cultural environment.
Debate and conflict in the Islamic community is a difference in the interpretation, and is a description of the search forms of religious practice in accordance with the cultural and social Kontek. For example, in assessing the issues of political and religious relations associated with issues of power and leadership succession, is the daily problems of mankind-this is a problem in the interpretation and use of religious symbols religious life for the sake of mankind. Of course the role of religion and the meaning will vary according to the diversity of social problems.
Anthropology, as a science of human learning, it becomes very important to understand the religion. Anthropological study of human behavior and all they can to understand the differences in human culture. Provided with a holistic approach and commitment antropology akan understanding of the human, then anthropology is a science that it is important to learn the religious and social interaction with different cultures.
Nurcholish Madjid said that antropologis approach is very important to understand Islam, because the concept of man as "caliph" (God's representative) on earth, for example, is the symbol of the importance of the position of man in Islam.
Important position in the Islamic people also indicate that the major problem in understanding Islam is to understand how humans. The issues experienced by men is indeed a religious issue was. Struggle in the life of humanity is essentially religious struggle. The anthropologist explains the existence of religion in human life with which to distinguish what they call as "common sense" and "religious" or "mystical event." In one hand, reflects the common sense of day-to-day finished with the usual rational consideration or with the help of technology, sementera sense is that religious activities or events that occur outside the range of ability nalar and technology.
Another explanation for example, that disclosed by emile Durkheim on religion functions as a brace of social solidarity, or Sigmund Freud reveals the important position of religion in psychiatric symptoms penyeimbang man, indeed reflects how religion so important for human existence. Although it must realize that efforts to menafikan religious people also often appear, and also the global community phenomenon. Two-hand, this study attempts to understand religion and religious menegasi existence-indeed describe how the study of religion as a universal human problem.
Thus, to understand that Islam has berproses in the history and culture will not be complete without understanding the man. Because the reality of religious reality is that humanitarian mengejawantah in the real world. Especially, the intrinsic meaning of keberagamaan is located on the interpretation and practice of religion. Thus, anthropologists are necessary to understand Islam, as a tool to understand the reality of humanity and understanding that has been practiced Islam-Islam that is practised, which is the picture of keberagamaan indeed human.
In Indonesia, business anthropologist to understand the religious and social relations has been made. Perhaps the paper Clifford Geertz The Religion of Java is written in the early 1960s the paper became popular at a time crucial for the discussion of religion in Indonesia especially in Java. Geertz that reveal the views of the trikotomi-abangan, santri priyayi-and in the community, and appeared to have influenced many people in the analysis of the relationship between religion and culture, or the relationship between religion and politics. In diskursus interaction between the religion-particularly Islam-and in the culture, views, Geertz has inspire many people to see more in-depth about interrelasi between them. Keterpengaruhan it can be seen from some of the views that try to implement a framework to think Geertz or those who want to make criticisms of the discourse Geertz.
Trikotomi Geertz views of the community about the religio-based Java kulturalnya affect the way perspective view of experts in religious and political relations. Geertz explanation of the Java community pengelompokkan to social groups in political ideology based on religious orientation. Although Geertz Java to community groups in the three groups, when presented to the political realities, which clearly shows the group is oposisinya and abangan santri. Geertz statement that is abangan community-based agriculture and santri based on trade and the dominant priyayi in the bureaucracy, apparently have a different political affiliation. Abangan nation closer to a political party with the issues of democracy, with priyayi nationalist party, and the santri choose parties that provide greater attention to religious issues.
This flow of political theory, according to Bahtiar Effendy, giving importance to the discourse about the relationship between religion-particularly Islam-and the country. Mainstream political theory can be used to provide a good description of one of the primary (base) pengelompokkan religio-social in Indonesia. Pengelompokkan social interaction patterns affect the broader politics in Indonesia.
Geertz referred this paper to provide a study that illustrated anthropology in Indonesia have successfully established a discourse about the distinctive relationship of religion and society at large. Anthropology of view in detail the relationship between religion and masarakat in the grassroot level to provide information that actually happens in the community. See religion in society, for anthropologists to see how religion is practiced, diinterpretasi, and is believed by adherents. So the discussion about how the religious and cultural relations are very important to see that religion practiced.
Interest to see religion in society is also very important if associated with a growing discourse posmodernisme lately. Although social scientists still debate whether the posmodernis is referred to as "phenomena" or a framework of "desconstruction theory", they agreed on bangkitnya-in the sense diakuinya back local knowledge as a truth-in the local culture percaturan global world. For political experts, for example, what is that by the klaimnya Fukuyama The End of History and The Last Man, globalization means that the system is the acceptance of liberal democracy as a system suitable to be used. For economists, wujudnya style Keynesian monetary system has proven that the world economy following a system. Telekomonukasi use of equipment and a computer with internet can also prove that globalization has reached agreement on a joint. However, for the social sciences, especially those involved directly with matters such as cultural anthropology, globalization implies the meaning of the other. The openness of communication and space for dialogue antarbudaya allows each culture to disclose or provide an alternative to the truth. James Clifford famous expression of failure "lighthouse" to claim a reality with the size of Western rationality, bangkitnya show "local knowledge" in the era of posmodernisme. This means that questions whether globalization will also unify cultural world akan emergence or re-culture in the local race of the world becomes very important.
Bassam Tibbi globalization reveals that lets people to a dialogue antarkebudayaan in the world. He admitted that the phenomenon of democracy is a universal phenomenon that would not affect people who do not have any tradition of democracy to mengadopsinya. However, it does not mean that local culture must be surrendered and replaced with a total democracy. Bassam Tibbi not menafikan that have differences of interpretation between real democracy in the West and in other areas so that there appear Democracy Asia (Asian Democracy) Democracy or Islam (Islamic Democracy). But the difference will not mean the conflict such as that by what Samuel Huntington. He was more optimistic view of the differences as the beginning of the obligation to hold dialogue antarbudaya for menelorkan which he used as the "international morality", a system of values resulting from the combined values of the best culture that exists.
If the return on the issue of study for anthropological study of Islam, it can be seen by looking at the relevance of two things. First, the anthropological explanation is very useful to help learn the religion of empirical, meaning that the study should be directed to the religious aspects of the social context of religious covers. The empirical study of religion can be directed to the two aspects, namely the human and cultural. Basically, religion was created to help people to be able to meet the desire-the desire kemanusiaannya, and lead to a better life. This clearly indicates that the issue of religion should be observed that the empirical is about people. Without understanding the human understanding of religion will not be perfect.
Then, as a result of the importance of human studies, the culture and the people who cover the life of man also be very important. Culture, as a system of meaning which gives meaning to life and human behavior, are essential aspects of humanity that can not be separated in human understanding. Quote Max Weber that man is being trapped in the net (web) for the sake of their own, then culture is the net. Geertz then mengelaborasi understanding of culture as patterns of meaning (meaning of the pattern) is inherited from the historical and stored in the symbols of the man and then communicate, behave and look of life. Therefore, the analysis of human culture and tradition in anthropology is not trying to find laws, such as in the sciences, but interpretatif study to explore the meaning (meaning).
Considered the meaning of that culture, the religion as a system of meaning that are stored in the sacred symbols is the pattern of meaning that humans inherited as Ethos and its worldview. Clifford Geertz Ethos interpret as a "tone, character and quality of human life also means that aspects of moral and estitika them." Geertz for religious character has been given for the special people who then influence the behavior kesehariannya. In addition, religion provides a description of reality that would be achieved by humans. Based on this understanding of religion as Ethos has established a special character for the man, then he can meet the description of reality (worldview) that would be achieved by humans.
Anthropological study also provides facilities for the study of Islam for more keragamaan see the influence of culture in the practice of Islam. Understanding reality in a real community will find a study of Islam a more empirical. Study of religion with the cross-culture which will give you a variatif about religious and cultural relations. With a broad understanding of the culture that allows us to have a dialogue and perhaps impossible not create a moral ideas of the world as a so-called Tibbi as "international morality" based on the cultural wealth of the world.
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